The earth is imbued with the marks and memories of countless conflicts, encompassing both victories and losses, which have led to massive changes in power dynamics, authority, demographics and the social landscape of countless lands. The impact of battles, whether waged on land or at sea, has indelibly influenced global history, with different degrees of significance. Indian subcontinent too has been profoundly affected by the decisive battles of Panipat, Tarain, Haldighati, Plassey, and Buxar, among others.
Likewise, naval battles including the Battle of Midway during World War II, the Battle of Trafalgar in the Napoleonic Wars and the Battle of Salamis, which took place between Greece and the Persian forces in 480 BC also played an equally important role in altering the world history. Since much of the world is oceans, battles of the seas have deeply influenced the trajectory of nations.
Unknown to most of use, conspicuously absent from the popular stories of our history and our school textbooks is a crucial phase of our history that came from the sea, spread along the coast and encompassed some fierce, pivotal naval battles that shaped India’s history.
It is known as the “Battle of Diu” also referred as the “Second Battle of Chaul” fought on the 3rd February of 1509 in which the Portuguese succeeded and effectively established their control over the Indian Ocean for the subsequent century until other European powers began to intrude upon their alleged territory what was referred to as the “Portuguese Lake.”
The chain of events that triggered the fateful confrontation including personal vengence, selfish greed along with an unprecedented religious fanaticism not only serve as a fascinating lesson but also expose the exploitation of vulnerabilities at the hands of imperial forces throughout history, especially in relation to India.
1498: Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut (1st Portuguese Armada on Indian coast)
Two years after leaving Portugal’s Lisbon, Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut (now Kozhikode) of Kerala on the western coast of India on 20th May 1498. This was the first time a European convoy had traveled by sea, rounded the Cape, to reach India. He is hence credited for ‘discovering’ the sea passage to India, a country known for its spices and other treasures since ancient times which had been sought after by countless western traders and sailors. In 1492, Christopher Columbus accidentally found America when his real objective was to reach the Indian coast. Eventually, Vasco da Gama was successful for the better (for the benefit of his European bosses) and worse (for India) but it’s reasonable to conclude that his voyage did change the world.
Europe had a high demand for goods from the Orient and India. Spices in particular were highly prized because they could be employed as preservatives to help people survive Europe’s severe winters. The majority of trade with India was conducted by road or through Arab traders who brought valuable items from India’s coast to the Venetians, who then sold the spices and other goods to the rest of Europe. The conquest of Constantinople by Ottomans in 1453 significantly lowered trade between Venice and Genoa, and the land voyage was costly. A direct commercial route to India would improve access to local commodities and increase revenues.
Additionally, it would grant the nation a monopoly on the profitable spice trade. The trip to India was approved by King Manuel I of Portugal, who also named da Gama the Armada’s captain and expedition leader. There were 170 soldiers and 4 ships on the trip. da Gama was the captain of a ship named Sao Gabriel. The fleet set sail on 8th July 1497 from Lisbon. The intent was to circumnavigate Africa and then travel from there to India. According to some accounts, Abdul Majid who was a Gujarati naval pilot in Malindi, guided Vasco da Gama to Calicut in (1497-1498).
On 7th November, the expedition arrived near the southern tip of Africa, and halted at St. Helena Bay to replenish and make repairs. However, a violent encounter with locals ensued in which da Gama was wounded but they rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 22nd November and stopped at Mossel Bay to reorganize the fleet. Many of the crew members had scurvy throughout the challenging journey following which they anchored in Malindi, East Africa after passing through Mozambique.
An Indian from Kenya reportedly gave da Gama information about the monsoons and helped him find his way to the subcontinent. When the latter arrived in Kappad, close to Kozhikode, on 20th May 1498, it was a part of the Kingdom of the Zamorin (Samuthiri Raja, or Samudrin) of Calicut, one of the richest men in the whole world.
The Zamorin was not impressed by da Gama’s presents, which included some clothing, caps, corals, sugar, oil, and other items. Interestingly, the foreigners were greeted with hospitality that included a spectacular procession. The Indians also questioned why there was neither silver nor gold.
His inconsiderate gifts and impolite demeanor turned off the Hindu monarch Zamorin of Calicut, which at the time was the most prominent trading hub in southern India. Local interpreters and Arabic speakers helped with communication, although misunderstandings took place. Naturally, the presence of a possible rival in the local trade irritated Calicut’s Muslim merchants. He was unable to reach a treaty, in part due to the animosity of Muslim traders and in part because the cheap trade items and trumpery gifts he had brought were barely in demand in India, although being appropriate for the West African commerce.
The Hindus were incorrectly thought to be Christians by the Portuguese who made a good fortune from the sale of spices they brought from India. Early on, da Gama’s refusal to pay the standard customs fees also caused tension in the relationship between the Zamorin and him. When hostilities rose, he departed at the end of August 1498, bringing five or six Hindus with him so King Manuel might become familiar with their traditions. Due to his ignorance and disregard for local knowledge, he had to sail against the monsoon as he had chosen the worst time of year to leave. Half of the soldiers had perished on this return trip, leaving the crew in poor condition.
Only two ships returned to Europe and arrived in Lisbon on 10th July 1499. The monarch welcomed da Gama as a hero and even accorded him the title “Dom.” The cargo that the voyage brought in was worth over 60 times its total cost. Many more Portuguese armadas would visit India, manipulating the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Portugal began as a commercial partner before colonizing some areas of India. Goa, their largest Indian colony, would be ruled by the Portuguese for more than 450 years, beginning in 1505 and ending only in 1961 when the Indian army freed the province.
Vasco da Gama’s return to Portugal with spices like cinnamon and pepper proved the sea route was feasible, opening the door for other expeditions and fundamentally changing the scope of international trade. It is frequently considered the most significant finding in what is known as the “Age of Discovery,” despite the fact that other European countries suppressed the Portuguese on the subcontinent (where the British ultimately prevailed).
It is ironic that in India, schoolchildren are taught to admire Vasco da Gama, as if he did a favour on us by ‘discovering’ an alternate route to India to serve the European interests. Little is discussed in the mainstream narrative about how Vasco da Gama brought us years of war, and centuries of colonisation for some of our key regions on the Western coast.
1500: Pedro Alvares Cabral’s fleet reaches India (2nd Portuguese Armada to India)
The Portuguese sailor, adventurer and aristocrat Pedro Alvares Cabral is known for his discovery of Brazil. Manuel I, the king of Portugal, assigned him the task of traveling to India. Three years after da Gama’s historic journey, the king gave him command of the second significant expedition, stating “the great confidence we have in Pedralvares de Gouveia, nobleman of our household.” He directed Cabral to strengthen trade relations and spread Catholicism. On 9th March 1500, he was appointed admiral in supreme command of 13 ships, which sailed from Lisbon. He intended to continue the campaign that Vasco da Gama commenced, fortify trade relations and pursue the same course as his predecessor.
Arab and Turkish traders dominated the lucrative spice trade till that time. Cabral was to sail southwest in order to avoid the turbulent waters of the “Gulf of Guinea,” as per da Gama’s instructions based on his experiences during the first journey. The Portuguese had the added benefit of being able to reconnoitre along the west coast of the lands along this track, which was dubbed as the “circle around Brazil.” However, Cabral had no prior sailing experience and hence renowned explorer Bartolomeu Dias traveled alongside him to aid in his quest.
One of Cabral’s ships went missing shortly after they left and was feared to have sunk. He was to travel around Africa to India in the same manner as Vasco da Gama. However, he unintentionally ventured into the Atlantic Ocean too far to the southwest. This mishap led him to a new country that the Europeans were unaware of, the coast of South America. Cabral understood that it was not India. He made landfall in Porto Seguro, on the coast of what is now the state of Bahia, with his fleet. He claimed the territory in the name of Portugal as they installed a big wooden cross on the shore. He believed that they had arrived on an island which is today known as Brazil.
Cabral informed the ruler of his news by sending a ship back to Portugal and spent roughly ten days in Terra de Vera Cruz (the first name given by the Portuguese navigators to the northeast coast) with the remainder of his fleet. He interacted with the natives and preached his religion before setting sail for India, a journey marred by a string of unfortunate events. He also left two of his men behind for more investigation. They made stops at a number of African ports, including Kilwa, Mozambique and Sofala but ran against hostile locals and had little success trading.
Four ships with all crews on board were lost on 29th May, when the crew rounded the Cape of Good Hope. On 13th September the surviving ships anchored in Calicut where Cabral was greeted by the Zamorin of Calicut. He brought diplomatic letters and expensive presents from the Portuguese king himself to Calicut. He negotiated a commercial agreement that allowed the Portuguese to engage in trade and also set a factory there. However, disagreements with Muslim traders soon erupted.
The facility had been operating for two months before roughly 500 men attacked it. Arabs, who were trading rivals of the Portuguese, spearheaded this surprise onslaught. Moreover, the Portuguese and Arabs had a long-standing religious conflict. The majority of the Portuguese defenders were murdered before the Portuguese fleet, which was moored in the harbor, could send reinforcements. This incident claimed the lives of about 50 Portuguese. Indians reportedly helped the Arabs in this attack as well. When Cabral did not receive an answer from the Zamorin regarding this incident, he attacked 10 Arab commercial ships. The vessels were burned and the crew slaughtered, in retaliation. Calicut was under siege for a full day.
Cabral then headed south to the Indian port of Cochin (now Kochi), where he was warmly greeted and allowed to exchange valuable spices for his six surviving ships. He completed his cargo in Carangolos and Cananor (Cannanore, now Kannur) on the same coast. He carried on selling and trading products and spices in other Indian cities. After forming business partnerships, he brought back a plethora of spices to Portugal. On 16th January 1501, he set out again for Portugal. However, two of his ships went down en route, and on 23rd June, he arrived at the entrance of the Tagus River in Portugal with just four ships.
The project had been plagued with disasters, but King Manuel was delighted with the outcome. He is reported to have initially supported appointing Cabral as the leader of a fresh, more potent expedition, but in the end, Vasco da Gama was chosen to command it. The Portuguese were always outnumbered by Indians, thus they sought to establish their military and artillery superiority and open the way for future traders from their nation. The tone for ‘gunboat diplomacy,’ which other European countries would adopt in their colonial endeavors in the subcontinent, was established by the Portuguese.
Gunboat diplomacy is the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare should terms not be agreeable to the superior force.
1501: Joao da Nova lands in India (3rd Portuguese India Armada)
King Manuel I of Portugal in 1501 ordered Joao da Nova who was a Galician-born explorer in the service of Portugal to lead a relatively smaller mission to India whose primary aim was commercial in nature. They had four ships, two owned by the crown and two privately while a fifth supply ship could have existed. The journey consisted of 350 to 400 men, only 80 of which were armed. Their goal was to travel to India, stock the spices and then head back home. They did, however, participate in the first major Portuguese naval conflict in the Indian Ocean.
Additionally, the uninhabited islands of Ascension and Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean were originally discovered by Nova. It also might have been the first Portuguese fleet to arrive in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), according to some speculations. It was hoped that Cabral had been successful in its ambassadorial assignment to negotiate a treaty with Calicut and establish a factory there. Unbeknownst to Nova, the expedition had not only failed in its purpose but had also sparked a conflict between Calicut and Portugal. Nova and his soldiers were sailing into an unanticipated and unprepared war. Furthermore, it appeared that they had a prearranged stopover in Sofala, where Cabral had been advised to establish a factory. However, there was no such Portuguese factory in Sofala as he was again unsuccessful.
The fleet docked in India in August 1501 in the Santa Maria Islands off the Malabar coast, named for the feast of the “Assumption of Mary” (15 August). He started heading along the Indian coast towards Kerala promptly, according to some accounts, while others claimed that he stopped at Batecala (Bhatkhal), the main trade port of the Vijayanagara Empire at the time and stayed there, trading with various merchants in the harbors and hunting down pirates in Onor (Honnavar). He then begun to move towards the Indian coast in the direction of Kerala, taking two merchant ships along the way that were supposedly from Calicut, close to Mount d’Eli.
After trading and possibly engaging in some piracy, they appeared to have just stayed in the region between Batecala and Mount d’Eli before moving south to Cannanore. It has been speculated, however, that during this lull, Nova might have begun some explorations in the region, specifically a broad swoop far south, beneath Cape Comorin, in an effort to find the famous island of ‘Taprobana’ (Ceylon), the world’s primary cinnamon supplier.
The Kolathiri Raja (King) of Cannanore welcomed him when he reached there in the fall of 1501, and he asked Nova to pack his ships with spices from the city’s marketplaces. Nova politely declined the offer, pointing out that he needs to first pick up the goods that the Portuguese factory in Cochin has already purchased. However, before departing, Nova leaves a few agents behind, instructing them to make plans to buy spices (mostly cinnamon and ginger) in the Cannanore markets to be collected up later.The Portuguese factory in Cannanore is supposed to have been founded by Nova at this period.
However, he left behind Paio Rodrigues, who was not a worker at the Casa da India (the crown trading company) but rather a private agent of D. Alvaro of Braganza and the Marchionni consortium. At the mouth of Calicut harbor, Nova attacked three merchant ships one of which was owned by the Zamorin himself, en route to Cochin. He took their cargo and set the ships on fire in full view of the city. Loot from these ships included some expensive silver Indian navigational charts and nautical instruments.
Meanwhile, he learned that Portuguese merchandise was unsold in both Cochin and Cannanore as the spice traders wanted payment in silver. A boycott of Portuguese products in Indian markets had reportedly been orchestrated by the Arab Merchants Guild as well. Raja Trimumpara of Cochin was also angry with the Portuguese because Cabral and his fleet left abruptly (without amity and taking two noble Cochinese hostages with them), even though he was an ally and had protected the factory. The Kolathiri Raja of Cannanore stepped in as collateral for the sale of spices to the Portuguese on credit just as the mission was about to fail. As a result, the impasse was broken and the Portuguese were able to finally stock up on spices.
First battle of Cannanore
Nova planned to depart India in late December 1501, laden with the spices he could obtain on credit in Cannanore (as well as any cargoes he was able to take through pirate attacks on Malabari ships). As the crew was preparaing to begin their journey from Cannanore on 31st December, they were surrounded in the harbor by a fleet sent by the Zamorin of Calicut comprising of roughly 180 small paraus and zambuks, as well as over forty large ships, totaling an estimated 7,000-man armed Malabari army.
Nova was urged by the King of Cannanore to remain under his protection and refrain from fighting. He, however, decided to try a break-out after spotting the favorable landside breeze. Nova directed his four ships into a column formation and charged through the Calicut line, gun exploding on either side of the little opening created by a few rounds of cannon.
Nova kept shooting at his assailants with his cannon while the Portuguese column advanced to the sea. Less seaworthy, the Calicut fleet started to disintegrate and fall behind. The fight was reduced to a ranged artillery duel as Nova pulled away, eliminating the possibility of a grapple. The Malabari ships soon discovered that their Indian cannon was unable to match the Portuguese cannon’s range and reloading speed. They then began to turn away and were followed by Nova for some time. However, the encounter concluded on 2nd January 1502.
What favoured the Portuguese? Better ships with better guns
Overall, the Portugueses had destroyed presumably a dozen oar-driven boats and five huge ships after two days of combat. They suffered minor damage but caused severe harm to the remaining Malabari vessels. The two-day naval combat off Cannanore was possibly the first major Portuguese naval action in the Indian Ocean, despite Nova’s lack of preparation.
Portuguese and Indian ships had previously clashed during the first two Armadas as well. The significant difference in ship construction and cannon technology between Europeans and Indians was made evident during the Battle of Cannanore. The Portuguese would later frequently take advantage of this discrepancy.
The Zamorin would have to stay on land or turn to the Arabs, Turks and Venetians in order to negate the Portuguese naval superiority. The conflict is particularly noteworthy in history because it was one of the first documented intentional uses of a naval column, which was later referred to as the line of battle. It was also decided only by the utilization of artillery. As fleets changed and started to view ships more as floating guns than as carriages of armed troops, these strategies would become more and more common. This has been referred to as the first ‘modern’ naval engagement in that regard (at least for one side).
Nova took a Calicut commercial ship off Mount d’Eli in early 1502, and after looting it, they burned and sank it before ultimately making their return journey. Their expedition had not been a complete success. They returned with fewer spices than expected (letters suggest that cargo holds returned largely empty), and they had failed to trade for gold in Africa. They stopped twice in East Africa, once in Malindi, where he dropped some letters which were recieved by Thome Lopes later that year and the second at Mozambique Island.
1502-1503: Vasco da Gama’s second voyage to India (4th Portuguese Armada to India)
Manuel I ordered another expedition to take advantage of the achievements of their previous missions and a third fleet was shortly outfitted in Lisbon. Vasco da Gama who was made an admiral in January 1502, was assigned command of this fleet. On 12th February 1502 he set out once more with a fleet of 20 warships to uphold Portuguese interests. Ten ships were backed by two flotillas of five ships each which was led by his relatives, based on some reports. They made a stop at the Cape Verdes, and arrived in the East African town of Sofala on 14th June. The Portuguese expedition made a brief halt in Mozambique before continuing on to Kilwa, which is today in Tanzania.
Cabral had not been friendly with the Amir Ibrahim, the ruler of Kilwa and da Gama threatened to burn Kilwa unless he swore allegiance to King Manuel and submitted to the Portuguese, which he did. After making a stop at Goa, which would later become the center of Portuguese dominance in India, da Gama continued his journey along the southern Arabian coast to Cannanore, where he waited for Arab ships which appeared with 200 to 400 people, including women and children as well as merchandise after few days.
How Vasco da Gama attacked a ship returning with pilgrims from Mecca, burned hundreds of men, women and children
Interestingly, Vasco da Gama brought gold and silk to demonstrate that he had visited India earlier. He was now ready to face the Muslim traders owing to his experience from the first mission. He had twenty vessels in his fleet. He killed many Muslims and Arabs in an attempt to take revenge from the former for the 1498 upest and to further Portugal’s interests in the east. He once awaited the return of a ship from Mecca, took all the cargo, locked the passengers in the hold, and set the ship on fire. All of the men, women and children perished when the ship sank after four days. The ship sank in four days, killing all of the men, women and children on board.
The fleet sailed to Calicut after da Gama forged an agreement with the Zamorin’s adversary, the ruler of Cannanore, to destroy its trade and get revenge on the Zamorin for his favors toward Muslim traders. After bombarding the port, he captured and killed 38 prisoners. Afterwards, the Portuguese headed south to the port of Cochin, where they forged an alliance with its king, a Zamorin foe. The Portuguese engaged Arab ships in a brief battle off Calicut but forced them to take full flight after the Zamorin’s invitation to da Gama turned out to be a bid to trap him.
He played privateer among Arab commercial ships before destroying a fleet of twenty-nine Calicut ships and successfully taking over that port city. He gained great favor with the Portuguese crown by negotiating favorable commercial arrangements as he secured a substantial quantity of booty in return for peace. He threatened to exile all Muslims in order to show his authority. He severed the hands, feet, and heads of 38 fisherman and hung them to show off his power. The mutilated bodies then drifted onto the beach. Later, they managed to enter the trading system and bombarded the city with firearms. Other Portuguese conquests in the East Indies were made possible afterwards. He then went back home following his conquest.
As a result, Portuguese trading practices were linked to terror, and da Gama was rightly demonized. On the first leg of their return journey, the fleet sailed from Cannanore to Mozambique on 20th February 1503, arriving at the Tagus on 11th October. He was appointed Count of Vidigueira from territory that had once belonged to the Braganca royal line, in Portugal. He was also granted feudal rights and control over Vila dos Frades and Vidigueira.
Unfortunately yet unsurprisingly, the avaricious desire for power unleashed more bloodshed and conflicts for the Indian subcontinent, which will be discussed in the upcoming articles and ultimately, this led to the pivotal “Battle of Diu”and cemented the roots of Portuguese in India for many generations to come.
The Portuguese in the late 15th century may or many not have been aware that their brutality, grit and savage bravery to travel to new shores is changing the world, and laying the foundation for pivotal points in human history, from the beginning of European colonisation of Asia to gathering the money and resources that eventually funded the industrial revolution in Europe. But they did know one thing, that they needed stronger ships fitted with better guns. It was those ships that helped them defeat the Ottomans.
This is Part 1 of a series that will discuss the Battle of Diu, a crucial point in the history of the world that changed the destiny of not just India, but the entire Western Asia, South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region. The seas that only knew the severity of the Monsoon winds, were about to witness something far more violent, European colonisers.
