19th February marks the birth anniversary of the man who laid the foundation of Hindavi Swarajya, Shivaji Maharaj, the first Chhatrapati of the Marathas and was immortalised in the annals of history. The founder of the Maratha Empire and Maratha Navy, he was a visionary leader and a skilled strategist. More importantly, he is not just a historical hero who inspires many Indians but also represents a symbol of cultural renaissance and resistance to oppression.

Shivaji was the pioneer of guerilla warfare and even paved the way for an independent naval force during a period when European nations dominated the oceans, giving him the moniker “Father of the Indian Navy.” He recognized the value of having a strong navy at an early age. He established a strong navy to defend the Konkan coast from colonial powers like the British, Dutch and Portuguese. Pirates, fishermen and various seafaring tribes were all part of his naval army and the Marathas established the fort of Kolaba as their naval headquarters.

The Marathas resisted the British attempts to seize power, on the Indian coasts. Notably, they initially had no navy because they were constantly attacked by the Mughals. However, Shivaji was the first to recognize the value of having a powerful navy. He understood the need to establish a robust fleet and an effective port system after fighting the Siddis, who had their base at Murud Janjira, and witnessing the Portuguese naval might along the Konkan coast. He was a strong supporter of forts and constructed numerous coastal forts along the Konkan coast, including Vijaydurg and Sindhudurg. He built the forts on hillocks with a view of the coast to keep an eye on the seas and fortify the defences of the hinterland.

Soon after, the Maratha navy grew more powerful and took control of the forts at Kolaba, Sindhudurg, Vijaydurg and Ratnagiri. The Marathas repelled the Portuguese and the British on their own for about 40 years. With over 500 ships, the Maratha fleet became a formidable force under Shivaji, however, it weakened following his death in 1680.

A dive into the history

India has a vast and varied maritime history and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stands out for his unprecedented contributions to naval strategy and warfare. The innovative leader who was born in the 17th century, observed the strategic value of an efficient navy long before other Indian rulers did. He developed the framework for a naval force that would not only protect the coastline but also project power and influence during a period when the subcontinent was divided into numerous kingdoms and faced with the prospect of foreign invasions.

Powerful kingdoms and empires shaped India in the seventeenth century. The Adilshahi of Bijapur, the Qutb Shahi of Golconda and the Mughal Empire had an impact on the Deccan region and Konkan coast. The Adilshahi controlled important ports along the Konkan Coast, a portion of India’s western coastline. The European nations like the Portuguese, Dutch, English and Siddis of African descent dominated the oceans.

The Portuguese took command of the Arabian Sea and its trade routes after Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut in 1498. They limited Indian merchants by enacting the Cartaz system which needed trading permits and frequently destroyed ships that did not comply. They founded colonies throughout the Konkan Coast, including in Vasai, Chaul, Daman, Goa, Basrur, and Mangalore, to consolidate their dominance with the help of a formidable naval fleet.

The first factory of the English East India Company was built at Surat in 1613, reported The Indian Express. After taking over Bombay in 1665, they started building a fort in the southeast corner of the island, which was finished in 1683. They also started building warships, such as the “Revenge” with 22 cannons and the “Hunter” which had 14. They also acquired smaller local ships equipped with cannons for defence.

The Dutch and the French were also active along the Indian coastline, in addition to the Portuguese and the British. On the Konkan coast, the Siddis had taken up residence at Janjira. They maintained a solid naval presence with a fleet of 20 vessels and four Gurabs (frigates), serving first for the Adilshahi and then the Mughals. They were adept seafarers.

A Marathi-language biography of Shivaji titled “Sabhasad Bakhar” expressed, “When Shivaji began his career of independence the coast of Konkan was infested with alien powers. The Siddi was very powerful and a sworn enemy of the Maratha state. He carried fire and sword everywhere on the Maratha coast. He was a standing nuisance, troublesome like a mouse in the house.”

When Shivaji took control of Torna Fort (in the modern-day Pune area), he set up the basis for his empire or “Swarajya” amidst this unstable political environment. The defeat of Afzal Khan, an intimidating general of the Adilshahi Sultanate who had been dispatched to quell Shivaji’s expanding authority was a pivotal point in his ascent to power. He later expanded his power over trade and maritime matters by incorporating a large portion of the Konkan and Kolhapur areas into Swarajya and gaining control of crucial northern ports like Kalyan and Bhiwandi.

He ruled over a 100-kilometer section of the Konkan coast between 1657 and 1658, stretching from the Savitri River to the northern forts of Kohoj and Asherigad. Likewise, he increased his dominion and directly challenged the Siddi domains by capturing several important forts including Surgad, Birwadi, Tala, Ghosale, Sudhagad, Kangori and Raigad (then known as Rairi).

How Shivaji built his navy

As Shivaji consolidated command over the coastal districts, he noted that naval might was imperative to counter European control over maritime trade routes and secure crucial exports along the Konkan coast. He also acknowledged that naval strength was essential to protect his empire since pirates were a constant menace and overseas trade was vital to state revenue. His vision resulted in the construction of a powerful navy, in contrast to other regional kingdoms on the Indian subcontinent that found it difficult to handle marine interruptions.

The water was a new frontier and Shivaji was still the only Indian monarch to have established a fleet with a defined political plan, according to historian Surendranath Sen’s book, “Administrative System of the Marathas” which was published in (1925), even if the Marathas were excellent at land warfare.

There are few firsthand records on how Shivaji started constructing his naval, but Portuguese archives offer important information. Shipbuilding in Kalyan and Bhiwandi started about 1659. On 19th July 1659, Antonio Castro, the captain of Vasai, wrote a letter to the governor of Goa, which was discussed at a meeting of the Portuguese advisory council. According to Castro, Shivaji was building a fleet of 20 sangvisel or Indian ships, in Bhiwandi, Kalyan and Pen in order to take on the Siddis. Rui Leitao Viegas, a Portuguese naval officer oversaw the project and Shivaji asked the Portuguese for permission to use timber and ports for construction.

Castro asked the governor to strengthen Vasai’s defences and put forward apprehensions that such permissions would create a daunting rival. The Portuguese advisory committee responded by taking action to thwart Shivaji’s initiatives. Vasai native Joao de Salazar was assigned the responsibility of impeding the shipbuilding process by convincing workers to drop out of the project due to their religious allegiance to the Portuguese crown.

Portuguese records unveiled that Shivaji’s naval projects made tremendous headway despite these challenges. According to the documents, 7 of the 50 warships that were being built at Chaul had already been launched. Shivaji’s frigates, fort construction and naval operations in Harnai were also mentioned in Dutch documents. These illustrated how Shivaji’s goal of a powerful navy was keenly studied and opposed by European powers. Importantly, they also signalled the start of an incredible maritime legacy in Indian history.

Adnyapatra guided Maratha Empire

“Adnyapatra” by Ramchandrapant Amatya was the manual for running state matters in the Maratha Empire, especially for Sambhaji II, the grandson of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This text, which reflected the tactics that fortified the empire, discusses administration, government and naval policies. Merchant ships and warships made up the two divisions of the Maratha fleet. Gurabs, Galbats, Mahagiris, Shibads, Tarandes, Taruses and Pagars were warships, whereas Machwas, Shibads, Padavs, Tarandes and Pagars were merchant ships. Although the precise number of Shivaji’s fleet is unknown, English records from 1665 place it at 85 ships with three big Gurabs and 5,000 sailors. The fleet grew to 33 ships by 1673.

According to the “Chitragupta Bakhar” (1760–1770), a biography of Shivaji based on Sabhasad Bakhar, there were 30 large Gurabs, 1,000 Galbats, 150 Mahagiris, 50 little Gurabs, 10 small boats, 150 smaller boats, 60 Taraves, 25 Pal ships, 15 Jug-class ships and 50 Machwas. The navy was split into 3 subhas (divisions) each with 5 Gurabs and 15 Galbats, per the Adnyapatra. It directed that the salary of naval personnel must be set by the state to maintain the fleet’s proper maintenance and operational effectiveness. This methodical strategy highlighted the strategic emphasis of the Marathas on naval prowess for defence, trade and conflict.

Importance of forts in Shivaji’s naval strategy

Forts were strategically included in Shivaji’s maritime policy because he grasped their vital function in maintaining naval defence. These forts were divided into three groups: island forts, which were erected on islands near the shore, coastal forts, which were situated immediately along the coastline and forts at river mouths, which were built on promontories along creeks or rivers. The Maratha Navy relied heavily on the key forts along the Konkan coast as operating strongholds, supply depots and safe harbours to enhance its maritime might.

The Adnyapatra defined precise rules for maritime combat along with fortifications. These included the requirement for persistent enemy movement monitoring, regular supply and ammo purchases from safe havens like Janjira, and ongoing naval patrols. The instructions placed a high focus on tactical, coordinated battle responses such as bringing all ships together in a naval engagement and withdrawing to secure harbours when the reorganization was impeded by strong winds. The text also suggested being cautious while engaging adversaries, encircling them from a distance and using guns to degrade their position before launching a direct attack.

Records showed that Shivaji’s navy launched multiple attacks and took control of the Konkan coastline and neighbouring seas. Interestingly, his navy took ships from the British, Portuguese and Adilshahi. The first major naval campaign took place in February 1665 when Shivaji, along with his fleet of 85 frigates and three huge ships, sailed from Malvan (in modern-day Maharashtra) to raid Basrur (in Karnataka) without encountering any opposition from the Portuguese in Goa.

His naval career reached a significant turning point with this campaign at Basrur, demonstrating his capacity to oppose powerful maritime nations. He marched to Karwar, a seashore city in Karnataka, after raiding Basrur where he visited the Hindu temple at Gokarna. He then proceeded to Ankola, which is in modern-day Karnataka. An important turning point in the history of Maratha naval supremacy, the campaign is described in an English letter dated 14th March 1665 and demonstrated Shivaji’s strategic skill.

Emphasis on building a strong navy

BK Apte in his seminal work “A History of the Maratha Navy and Merchantships” wrote, “The navy has been considered as an independent limb of the Maratha State by (Shivaji’s finance minister Ramachandra Pant) Amatya in Rajniti, a work on Maratha polity.” Superiority was his goal. He understood that to acquire land, he needed to control the seas. “When Shivaji began his career of independence, the coast of Konkan was infested with alien powers,” he added.

There were the English, and the Portuguese who ruled the Arabian Sea and the Siddis who posed a serious threat. The conquest of Basrur, in the Karnataka region of Udipi, in 1665 marked the beginning of Shivaji’s naval aspirations. With 85 ships, both large and tiny, he targeted the region and returned with a ton of loot. This attack involved no naval combat but served as a pivotal turning point. Even the Portuguese were alarmed by Shivaji’s bold naval strategy. The viceroy of Goa requested that the Portuguese commander “smother” the movement of the “newly built gallivats” at Kalyan, Bhiwandi, and Panvel in a letter to the king of Portugal dated 6th August 1659. One of Shivaji’s first victories in 1657 was Kalyan, where he also launched his maiden vessel.

There were about 20 warships in the Maratha Navy at the time. Despite having two capable commanders, Mainak Bhandari and Dulat Khan, his crew were Konkanis with a strong affinity for seawater. The legacy was carried on by Shivaji’s son Sambhaji, who expanded the navy, built forts, hired Arab commander Jange Khan to instruct his warriors and acquired Elephanta Caves. However, Kanhoji Angre was Shivaji’s real heir in this regard. He held the unique distinction of never losing a naval combat since being appointed sarkhel or admiral of the Maratha navy in 1699. At Kandheri Island, Angre completed the fortification Shivaji had begun in 1679 and this 16-acre island is named after him.

Naval tactics of Shivaji’s naval army

Shivaji’s maritime strategies were groundbreaking and are still regarded as military strategy masterworks. He was aware of the value of a robust naval force, particularly after observing the Portuguese presence on India’s west coast.

• Building of naval fleet: In 1654, the Maratha naval base’s first keel was laid close to Kalyan. He eventually constructed a fleet of 20 warships and several naval stations under the leadership of many foreign and indigenous mercenaries, including Portuguese and Siddi individuals.
• Guerrilla warfare at sea: The Maratha fleet was an expert in green-water operations, concentrating on shallow and coastal seas. To hide in bays or small creeks where larger enemy ships couldn’t follow, they used guerilla warfare, attacking from the leeward or astern side.
• Hand-to-hand combat: The Maratha fleet specialized in hand-to-hand warfare after boarding enemy ships, in contrast to other naval forces that mainly depended on artillery. This strategy neutralized the enemy’s broadside cannons and made it possible for the Marathas to engage in more close-quarters fighting which they were quite good at.
• Tactical Positioning: The ships of the Maratha fleet were dispersed throughout various squadrons rather than being housed in one location. They were able to respond to threats with greater agility and versatility owing to this distribution, which made it harder for the adversary to anticipate their moves.
• Intelligence and Infiltration: The navy of Shivaji was renowned for its in-depth combat expertise. They obtained valuable intelligence by infiltrating opposing empires and even buying off commanders. This information was essential for organizing surprise assaults and aggressive military operations.
• Defense and Offense: The Battle of Surat, in which the Maratha naval successfully defended their coast against the English and Siddi, is the first known instance of the Maratha navy in action. This demonstrated that the Maratha naval was capable of both defending its territories and attacking.

Shivaji’s leadership and the inspiration he gave his soldiers were major factors in the Maratha Navy’s success. Despite being outnumbered or having fewer resources, his army’s enthusiasm and vast knowledge played a key role in winning multiple conflicts.

Characteristics of the Maratha Naval Army

Shivaji developed the idea of “Guerilla Warfare at Sea” which entailed attacking enemy ships unexpectedly with quick and nimble ships. The purpose of this approach was to achieve a strategic advantage by surprising the opposition. He built strong naval bases along the coast as he recognized the worth of safe harbours. The forts of Sindhudurg and Vijaydurg stand out among them. They provided secure havens for his fleet and gave him command over important shipping lanes.

He had a diversified fleet like Gurabs, Gallibats, Manjuhasm and others. A variety of tactical methods from swift attacks to protracted naval blockades were made possible due to this. He was willing to soak up knowledge from many naval traditions. He enlisted Muslim mercenaries to broaden the skill set of his naval army and employed Portuguese sailors because of their proficiency in maritime combat. Protecting the Maratha territory’s extensive coastline and commercial routes was one of his navy’s main goals.

His naval strategy was to build a safe marine environment by combining offensive and defensive tactics. Additionally, Shivaji employed his navy as a diplomatic instrument. He consolidated his naval capability through treaties and strategic alliances, improving the Maratha Empire’s geopolitical clout. He was eager to implement the newest naval innovations available at the time. His ships were powerful adversaries in naval battles because they were outfitted with cutting-edge armament and navigation technology.

Forts conquered by Shivaji

Shivaji was an expert in fort warfare in addition to maritime strategy. He began the conquest of forts at the young age of 15, beginning with the fort of Bijapur, which he obtained by bribing the commander. This led to a confrontation with Afzal Khan, who he later killed in hand-to-hand combat. Shivaji oversaw the conquest of almost 300 forts in 35 years.

• Torna Fort: One of the first forts that Shivaji took control of when he was just 16 years old was Torna Fort which was a major victory over the Bijapur Sultanate. His military campaigns officially began at that time.
• Raigad Fort: Shivaji took control of Raigad Fort which was formerly known as Rairi and pronounced it as his capital. He was anointed King of the Maratha Kingdom there in 1674.
• Pratapgad Fort: This fort rose to prominence following the Battle of Pratapgad in which Shivaji vanquished Bijapur Sultanate leader Afzal Khan. Controlling the banks of the Nira and Koyna rivers depended heavily on this fort.
• Sindhudurg Fort: Situated on Maharashtra’s Malvan coast, this fort was a major naval base in addition to being a military stronghold. Shivaji constructed numerous naval forts to guard the Konkan coastline, and this one was one of them.
• Vijaydurg Fort: Vijaydurg, another important naval fort, played a key role in regulating the seafaring activity along the Konkan coast. It functioned as a shipbuilding facility as well.
• Panhala Fort: The strategically significant Panhala Fort, which was taken in 1659, provided command over the Sahyadri mountain pass.
• Kondana Fort: Kondana Fort, now known as Sinhagad was taken in a bold night-time assault by Tanaji Malusare, one of Shivaji’s trusted generals. A movie starrer Ajay Devgn and Kajol was released in 2020 on the same.
• Purandar Fort: Shivaji reclaimed the fort after it had been lost to the Mughals and it was an integral part of the Treaty of Purandar with the Mughal Empire.

These forts operated as administrative and governmental hubs in addition to being military strongholds. They were essential to Shivaji’s plan to secure his legacy by controlling the western shore and the Deccan plateau.

Maratha’s clash with other forces

Shivaji and the Siddis are famous for their naval battles. Shivaji tried multiple times to take the powerful Janjira fort, but he was unable to do so because of the stronghold’s natural defences and the Portuguese backing for the Siddis. The Siddis accepted Portuguese suzerainty for protection after realizing they could not compete with Shivaji’s growing power. Shivaji was able to strategically manoeuvre around Portuguese interests while concentrating on expanding his kingdom. The Marathas and the Portuguese also agreed to a pact acknowledging each other’s advantages. The Maratha Navy and the Mughal-Siddi coalition continued to combat despite treaties with the Portuguese. However, Marathas could not capture Janjira.

Shivaji focused on Khanderi Island, which is close to Mumbai after realizing the necessity for a backup naval base. Due to the island’s scarcity of fresh water, the initial attempt to capture Khanderi in 1662 was abandoned. In 1679, Shivaji sent troops and supplies to the island as part of a renewed campaign. The British interests were put at risk by this action since Shivaji’s takeover of Khanderi represented an immediate threat to their hegemony in Mumbai. Shivaji’s presence was fiercely contested by the British, who were eventually compelled to leave.

Shivaji’s navy was very large but he knew that European commerce relied on their naval strength to succeed. He intentionally positioned forts, ports and naval bases by taking advantage of the Konkan region’s natural geology. He bolstered his navy by utilizing the expertise of the locals in marine navigation and the sea. He defended ports, secured commercial routes and promoted economic expansion through greater trade by implementing creative techniques.

Shivaji inherited a landlocked jagir that was cut off from the sea. It is all the more admirable that a landlubber like him constructed a navy at all. He had the wisdom to perceive the importance of naval strength in both defence and offence at a period when it was mainly disregarded in India. He established several fortified naval outposts along the western coastline after laying the groundwork for the Maratha naval force in 1654, close to Kalyan.

His fleet, which included a variety of ships under the direction of both foreign and local experts was evidence of his imaginative management and foresight. He was dubbed the “Father of the Indian Navy” for his strategic vision and approach to naval warfare.

He not only protected the Maratha empire from foreign invasions but also used his naval prowess as a diplomatic tool. He used novel tactics like hand-to-hand combat, guerrilla warfare at sea, and strategic fleet posture. His naval pursuits inspired naval strategy in the present day and set the foundation for India’s future maritime operations. His contribution and accomplishments were revolutionary which perfectly capture his lasting maritime legacy.

Shivaji’s maritime legacy was also honoured by the Modi government. His royal seal (Ashtakoni Rajmudra) served as the inspiration for the Indian Navy’s new ensign in 2022, which honoured his heritage with a sophisticated blue octagonal design. During his visit to Sindhudurg in 2023, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at Rajkot Fort.